1882
Chinese Exclusion Act
Suspends immigration of Chinese laborers and bars Chinese immigrants from naturalization. Extended in 1892 and made permanent in 1902; repealed in 1943.
Source: National Archives
The Gilded Age. 1878–1900
Industrial growth, Chinese exclusion and the spread of segregation laws. The Court upholds “separate but equal” and confirms birthright citizenship.
The questions. As the record frames them.
The constitutional questions this era’s decisions and laws turned on.
- Does equal protection permit legally required separation?
- Who is a citizen by birth?
The record. 7 entries, in order.
Every case, amendment and event in Constilumen dated 1878 to 1900.
1883
Civil Rights Cases
No. The Fourteenth Amendment reaches state action, not private conduct, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875’s public accommodations provisions were unconstitutional.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1886
Yick Wo v. Hopkins
Yes. A law fair on its face but administered with an unequal hand denies equal protection, and the guarantee covers non-citizens.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1889
Chae Chan Ping v. United States
Yes. The power to exclude non-citizens is an incident of sovereignty that Congress may exercise, even contrary to earlier treaties.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1895
Pollock v. Farmers’ Loan & Trust Co.
Yes, as to taxes on income from property, and the tax was struck down as a whole.
Source: Opinion of the Court
1896
Plessy v. Ferguson
No. Separate accommodations that were equal did not violate equal protection. Justice Harlan dissented: “Our Constitution is color-blind.”
Source: Opinion of the Court
1898
United States v. Wong Kim Ark
Yes. The Fourteenth Amendment’s Citizenship Clause made him a citizen by birth on United States soil.
Source: Opinion of the Court
The language. What stood out in print.
Tracked terms printed most often in 1878–1900 compared with their own average across 1789–2022. A value of 2× means the word appeared twice as often as usual.
- suffrage1.3×
- rule of law1.2×
- unconstitutional1.0×
- constitution1.0×
- habeas corpus1.0×
- patriotism0.9×
Executive orders. Presidencies of the era.
Totals for each full presidency, including years outside the era. Counts before 1945 include unnumbered orders.
| President | Took office | Orders | Per year |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rutherford B. Hayes | 1877 | 92 | 23 |
| James Garfield | 1881 | 6 | 11 |
| Chester Arthur | 1881 | 96 | 28 |
| Grover Cleveland (I) | 1885 | 113 | 28 |
| Benjamin Harrison | 1889 | 143 | 36 |
| Grover Cleveland (II) | 1893 | 140 | 35 |
| William McKinley | 1897 | 185 | 41 |
Source: The American Presidency Project. All presidencies